Security markers have been employed for the identification, tracking and authentication of items of interest, high value articles and merchandise etc., see for instance U.S. Pat. No. 8,415,164: System and method for secure document printing and detection; U.S. Pat. No. 8,426,216: Method for authenticating articles with optical reporters; and U.S. Pat. No. 8,124,333: Methods for covalent linking of optical reporters.
One commonly used type of marker or identification tag is a barcode. A barcode is a representation of data by varying the widths and spacing of parallel lines, sometimes stacked in a two-dimensional pattern. When used as an identification tag on an object, the barcode carries encoded information relevant to that object that can be read by a barcode decoder or reader. (See for example U.S. Pat. No. 8,368,878 Method, apparatus, and article to facilitate evaluation of objects using electromagnetic energy to Furness et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 8,285,510 Method, apparatus, and article to facilitate distributed evaluation of objects using electromagnetic energy to Schowengerdt et al.).
Another commonly used type of barcode is the QR code (“Quick Read” codes). QR codes were first used by Denso, a Toyota subsidiary to track automobiles during manufacturing by allowing their contents to be decoded at high speed. QR codes became one of the most popular two-dimensional barcodes. Unlike the original barcode that was designed to be interrogated by a beam of light, the QR code is detected as a 2-dimensional digital image by a semiconductor-based image sensor that can be digitally analyzed by a programmed processor. The processor locates reference squares at three corners of the QR code, and processes the image after normalizing its size, orientation, and angle of viewing. The small bars in the code can then be converted to binary numbers and their validity checked with an error-correcting code.
Still another commonly used identification code or tag is the RFID (radio-frequency identification) tag. RFID tags store data electronically or as a bit stream which can be read wirelessly by machine outside a line of sight. See for example U.S. Pat. No. 6,043,746 to Microchip Technologies Incorporated. RFIDs can be extended range RFIDs: see for instance, U.S. Pat. No. 6,147,606 or for restricted range RFIDs, see for instance, U.S. Pat. No. 6,097,301. Unlike barcodes, RFIDs need not be in a line of sight of the reader and can even be embedded in the object being interrogated.
Although these identification tags are useful for generic identification and tracking, they can be easily copied. There is a need for more secure forms of taggant verification for authentication of tagged objects, particularly high value merchandise.
When electronic components are obsolete, replacements are usually obtained from authorized suppliers. These suppliers search for parts from their own stock, contractor or government excess stock, and often from internet listing sites which list available components. Components from all locations, and in particular from internet listing sites, are at high risk for being counterfeited. Used, scrapped semiconductor electronic components are removed from circuit boards in a fashion that often subjects the parts to both thermal and electrostatic stresses beyond the manufacturer's recommended limits. In addition, generic components of this type (e.g., memory devices, amplifiers and voltage regulators), which have many versions from multiple manufacturers, may be remarked to falsely identify the parts as having greater than actual capability (e.g., capacity, speed, power dissipation and temperature range). This risk is present for all purchases from unauthorized suppliers, regardless of the obsolescence status. However, the risk for active parts is most easily mitigated through maximum use of authorized suppliers.
Most counterfeit electronic components are subjected to some level of remarking. This is done because new electronic components are generally packaged with all the parts in one shipment produced from a small number (two or less) of production batches. These batches are usually identified through a lot or date code designator on the component part that can be used to identify the approximate time-frame, and often the facility, which produced the component. Counterfeiters often re-mark product, even if it is the correct part number, in order to make the entire shipment appear as if it was from one lot or date code.
The Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) or “primes” as they are sometimes called, are the last point for elimination of counterfeits before they appear in the operational environment. In one case, an aerospace manufacturer was subjected to intense scrutiny for its failure to detect the presence of counterfeit electronic parts in aircraft sold to the Defense Department. This is a critical problem for OEMs, as they experience spiking costs related to counterfeits, both explicit and hidden costs.
The directly attributable costs of counterfeits to the Original Component Manufacturers start, but only start, with loss of revenue, licensing fees, and royalties when a potential customer purchases a counterfeit part instead of the original. There is in effect a nameless competitor, siphoning revenue and market share, all of which may come in at about 2% of the total addressable semiconductor market. This would amount to $6B in the global semiconductor market of over $300B in 2011.
As in all quality control, the cost of eliminating defects increases sharply as a product moves toward, and then, into service. By this estimate, remediation of counterfeiting is estimated to cost ten times the product cost if found at the board check stage, one hundred times the product cost if found at equipment final test, and a thousand times the product cost if the defective part is found in service. These problems relate to inappropriate marking of used or substandard parts, but an even more serious problem relates to malware that may be introduced in an electronic component part that is marked as newly produced by an original equipment manufacturer. Exclusion of such malware by an effective security marking system is a critical need. Other electronic and non-electronic articles of interest are also regularly subject to imitation or counterfeit substitutions. Additional coding techniques and methods of identification, tracking and authentication of items of interest, high value articles and merchandise etc. are in constant demand to stay ahead of the threat posed by counterfeit items and products.